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​Wiki Assignment 10: Biomolecules
**Carbohydrates:** 1) Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen bonded together. 2) Carbohydrates function as an energy source for the human body as well as precursors for building polymers. 3) Some examples of carbohydrates include glucose and fructose.  **Pro**t**​eins:**   1) Proteins are made up of one or more unbranched chain(s) of amino acid(s). 2) Proteins allow motion in cells and organisms, act as the structure of a cell, transport materials in bodily fluids, and supply nutrients for all living organisms. 3) Some examples of proteins include glycine and albumin. 1) Lipids are hydrophobic and includes fats, oils, waxes, steroids, and phospholipids. Fats and oils are made up of two types of molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Phospholipids are made of two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group with another molecule attached at the end. Steroids consist of two six-member rings that are next to each other sharing one side, a six-member ring coming from the top corner of the right ring, and a five-member ring attached to the right side of the six-member ring attached at the corner. 2)Lipids are used in making waxes and steroids, coat and protect things (i.e. bees wax and ear wax), and are used as soaps and detergents. 3)Linoleic acid and cholesterol are examples of lipids. 1) Nucleic acids are composed of chains of base pairs.They are made up of //monomers// or //nucleotides// which are Uracil, Cytosine, Thymine, Adenine, and Guanine. Nucleotides are made up of a five carbon sugar, a base that includes a nitrogen atom, and an ion of phosphoric acid 2) Nucleic acids act as the building blocks for all living organisms. 3) Examples of nucleic acids include DNA and RNA.
 * Lipids:**
 * Nucleic Acids:**

Wiki Assignment 9: Concentrated vs. Dilute and Weak vs. Strong
1) The difference between a concentrated solution and a dilute solution is that a concentrated solution is a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount of //solvent// whereas a dilute solution is a solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount of //solvent//. It is important to remember that a //solute// is a substance that can be dissolved in a solution and a //solvent// is a substance that can dissolve another substance is a solution. 2) The difference between a strong acid and a weak acid is that a strong acid is an acid that completely disassociates in water and the forward reaction dominates whereas a weak acid is an acid that does not disassociate completely thus the reverse reaction dominates.



**Wiki Assignment 8: Equilibrium 2**
1) Once a chemical system has reached equilibrium, the concentrations of all the reactants and products remain constant because in chemical equilibrium there is no net change within the conditions of the system. As long as there is no change in the system's temperature, volume, or pressure, the concentrations of the reactants and products will remain the same indefinitely. Although the constancy of the concentrations remains constant, equilibrium is still considered as a dynamic state. Molecules are constantly colliding with one another and these collisions cause the forward reaction to occur. Once the concentrations of the reactants are lowered, the products begin to form. The concentrations of the products then increase as more molecules collide with one another. Because the rate of the forward reaction decreases and the rate of the reverse reaction increases, the concentrations eventually reach a state in which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. When equilibrium is reached, molecules continue to collide with one another but not in the correct orientation or enough energy to cause a stress within the system. 2) An reaction can be written as an equilibrium expression by multiplying the products and dividing it by the multiple of the reactants. For example, take the generic equation //a//A +//b//B ↔ //c//C + //d//D. The products, C and D, are multiplied and the coefficients, //c// and //d//, become the exponent of their corresponding chemical. The multiple of the products is then divided by the multiple of the reactants, A and B, and the coefficients once again become the exponent of their corresponding chemical. The equilibrium expression is then written as //K// = __[ C ] ͨ [ D ] ͩ__ [ A ] ͣ [B ] ᵇ  where //K// represents the equilibrium constant.

__Examples: __ a) 2NO(g) + 2O 2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) ↔ 2NO <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> K //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> = __[ N__ __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> ]² __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> [ NO ]² [ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">] <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">b) 2NBr <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">3 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) ↔ N <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) + 3Br <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">K //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> = __[ N__ __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 __ __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">] [ ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Br ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 __ __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">]³ __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> [ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">NBr <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">3 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> ]² <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> c) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">H <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) + I <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) ↔ 2HI(g) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">K //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> = __[ HI__ __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">]² __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> [ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">H <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">] [ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">I <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">] <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">

3) __Homogeneous Equilibrium:__ 2 H <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O(g) ↔ 2H <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) + O <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">K //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> = __[__ __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">H ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> ]² ____<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">[ ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 ____<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> ] __<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> [ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">H <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O]² __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Heterogeneous Equilibrium: __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> CaCO <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">3 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(s) ↔ CaO(s) + CO <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">(g) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">K //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> =[ <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> CO <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 8pt;">2 <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> ]

Wiki Assignment 7: Equilibrium
Equilibrium, or the balancing of two processes, can occur in various places other than chemical reactions. For instance, when a dancer does a grand jeté they are demonstrating equilibrium. The force that the dancer exerts onto the ground when they are preparing for the leap is equal and opposite of the force that is exerted on the dancer off of the ground. Like chemical equilibrium (a dynamic state where the concentration of all reactants and products remain constant), the reactant (the preparation for the jump) and the product (the leap) remain constant throughout the reaction. The preparation for the leap and the actual leap both happens at the same rate like. Once the dancer is in the air, they come back to the ground and exert the same amount of force when they land at the same rate as their preparation and their leap. Overall, there is no net change between the rate of the leap. During chemical equilibrium, the process of the reactant forming the product and the product forming the reactant occur at the same rate and there is no net change in the concentrations of the reactant and the product.

Wiki Assignment 6: Reaction Rates
Concentration: The concentration of a solution dictates how fast that solution will react. In most situations, the higher the concentration of a solution, the faster the solution will react. For instance, The more concentrated a solution is, the more likely the molecules in the solution will collide, breaking chemical bonds and causing a reaction. An example of this is the Elephant Toothpaste expierment.

Temperature: When a cake mix is heated in an oven, chemical reactions cause the mixture to change from a "goop" to a spongy solid, due to the temperature of the oven. The higher the temperature of a solution is the higher the average kinetic energy of the molecules is in that solution. Because the molecules have a higher average kinetic energy, they are more likely to collide with one another and break the chemical bonds holding them together. Once these bonds are broken, the molecules rearrange themselves and create a new chemical structure.

Catalyst: Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy than the solutions original pathway, thus increasing the amount of collisions between molecules and increasing the rate of the reaction. The human body uses biological catalysts called //enzymes// to increase the rate of chemical reactions within the body. When people eat food, teeth and stomach acids break down the food before traveling to the small intestine. There, several digestive fluids are added containing enzymes such as amylase, protease, and lipase secreted from the pancreas. These enzymes help increase the rate of the reactions taking place within the body thus increasing the digestive process.

Surface Area: The larger the surface area, the faster the reaction will be in a solution. If the molecules of a solution are spread over a larger area of a solid, the more likely collisions are to occur between the solution and the solid thus the faster the molecules are to react. For ecample, when HCL reacts with zinc, the molecules of the HCL are able to spread out over the surface area of the zinc and collide faster and react at an increased rate. = Wiki Assignment 5: Investigating Solubility and Immiscibility = When two liquids are unable to mix or homogenize, they are said to be __immiscible__. Oil and water are immiscible and when there is an oil spill in the ocean, the oil pollutes the water and causes destruction of marine life. In order to minimize their destructive effects on the environment, the oil must be removed from the water as soon as possible. The oil may be contained and skimmed through the use of buoyant booms that float on top of the water while skirts attached to the booms float beneath the water that contains a slick to prevent the oil from spreading. This allows boats that scoop the oil out of the water into containment tanks to skim the water more easily. Massive sponges may also absorb oil after a boom slicks the oil or the oil could simply be burned. Burning oil (also called in situ burning), however, produces toxic fumes that can be hazardous to people.

//Solubility:// the maximum quantity of a solute (a substance that can be dissolved in solvent to create a solution) that can be dissolved in a solvent (the dissolving medium within a solution). //Rate of Dissolution:// the rate at which the variables of a solution are dispersed and are homogenized.

When a solution experiences a change in temperature, in surface area, or is stirred the solubility and the rate of dissolution of the solution is in turn changed. When a solvent is heated, the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the solvent is increased and the bonds between the molecules are more easily overcome, thus, the solubility and the rate of dissolution of the solution is increased. By stirring a solution, "fresh" protons from the solvent come in contact with that of the solute and stirring a solution increases rate of dissolution but not effecting the solubility of the solution. The dissolution rate is increased as the surface area of a solution increases because dissolution process takes place on the surface area of a liquid and when there is a grater amount of surface area, the solution is able to dissolve more quickly. The solubility of the solution, however is not effected.

= Wiki Assignment 4: Whimsical Water =

1) Water has an unusually high //specific heat//, or amount of energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C (4.186 joule/gram). It can absorb heat energy in large amounts before it increases its temperature and it releases heat slowly before it decreases its temperature. []

2) The //surface tension// of water, or the tension of water’s surface in liquid form caused by the cohesion of the molecules, is higher than that of most other substances at72.8 dynes/cm at 20°C. Water molecules are said to be "sticky" because they clump together rather than spread out like molecules of other liquids. []

3) Water is neither an acid or a base, but has an unusual neutral //pH// of 7 in its natural liquid form. The pH of a substance is the measurement of how acidic or basic that substance is. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterproperties.html

4) Water is the only natural substance on earth that can be found in all three of the physical states at natural temperatures. It can be found as a solid (ice), liquid (water), and a gas (vapor/steam). []

5) Water is the only molecule referred to as a universal //solvent//, or a substance that has the ability to dissolve a different substance. When these substances are dissolved, water is able to carry valuable solvent nutrients and minerals. []

Wiki Assignment 3​: Global Warming
The greenhouse effect is directly related to the sun’s radiation and the absorption of this radiation by the earth’s surface. Light moves in both waves and packets of radiant energy called photons. The sun emits light with various wavelengths and frequencies onto the earth and most of the radiation is absorbed by the earth’s surface. Certain molecules in the atmosphere called greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and re-emit this radiation towards the sun. These greenhouse gases are molecules that consist of three or more atoms vibrate in various ways and sift charges. If the shifting charges of these molecules occur at the same frequency as the radiant energy in the region will absorb this energy. These molecules will re-emit the infrared radiation but will reflect off of the atmosphere and will be directed back to the earth's surface. Global warming is a controversial topic that has been debated on since the late 80s. I have heard that the cause of the global climate change is excessive use of fossil fuels, which emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide causes the layer of greenhouse gasses surrounding the earth to thicken, increasing the amount of radiation being re-emitted back to the earth by greenhouse gasses. I have also heard that coral reefs are beginning to die because of the increase in ocean water temperature's. As the temperature of the water increases, the oxygen content reduces, causing the reefs to die. Because these vital organisms are dying, the ecosytem is beginig to suffer.

Wiki Assignment 2: Ideal Gases ​in the Real World
The Kinetic molecular theory can be used to explain many gas phenomena in the world outside of a chemistry lab. As demonstrated in this YouTube video, as the amount of air in a bicycle tire is increased, the volume of the tire decreases. Because the volume of the tire is decreased the pressure continues to build up until there is not enough room for the gas particles to collide, causing the tire to explode. As stated in Boyle’s Law, the pressure of the tire and the volume of the tire are inversely proportional.

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According to Gay-Lussac’s Law, as the temperature of a gas is increased the pressure that is exerted on the gas is increased. During the wintertime, the tires on my bicycle become "flat" because the average kinetic energy (temperature) of the gas molecules decreases causing the gas particles within the tire to collide less with each other and the wall of their container. Because the gas particles collide less, the pressure of the tire is decreased. When a balloon is being inflated, the balloon does not inflate instantaneously but rather expands and fills with air slowly. According to Avogadro’s Law, at a constant pressure and temperature the volume and the amount of moles present within the balloon are directly proportional. The more air that is added to the balloon the more moles are present within the gas, causing the balloon to inflate.

**The MarrowMiner: A Better Way to Harvest Bone Marrow**
<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9pt;">Dr. Daniel Kraft, a pediatric cancer doctor and a Stanford University stem cell researcher, has discovered a way to harvest bone marrow through less invasive maneuvers. I was interested to discover how Dr. Kraft was able to come up with such a maneuver for harvesting bone marrow because I aspire to become a doctor when I graduate high school and have an interest in pediatrics and stem cell research.

Bone marrow transplants are used to save the lives of countless people that are inflicted with leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma, autoimmune diseases, and genetic disorders. The process of harvesting this life saving marrow, however, is extremely painful. It requires general anesthesia, puncturing a large needle through soft tissues and bone, and using a syringe to collect ten milliliters of bone marrow about two-hundred times. Dr. Kraft thought that it was unnecessary to go to such extreme measures to collect bone marrow so he invented a minimal invasive approach to the procedure through the use of a device called the MarrowMiner.

The MarrowMiner enters the bone through the front or the back of the pelvis. At the end of the MarrowMiner is a flexible, powerful catheter with a wire loop tip. The catheter stays inside the “crunchy” bone marrow and is able to navigate around the contours of the pelvis. This allows the patient to have only one entry used for the entire procedure with no rub-outs required. Studies have shown that there was ten times the amount of stem cell activity in the bone marrow harvested by the MarrowMiner compared to the standard harvesting needle. Adult bone marrow stem cells have been used in the past decade for regenerative medicines and have been a reliable source for stem cell therapy for the past forty years. These stem cells can be used to treat conditions such as heart disease, vascular disease, Parkinson’s, and other neurological diseases as well orthopedic tissue engineering. The FDA has approved the MarrowMiner and procedures on human subjects have been successfully performed.

I was impressed that Dr. Kraft was able to develop such an effective maneuver for harvesting bone marrow. He has truly revolutionized the efficiency of the procedure. I was also astonished by the numerous applications the MarrowMiner has created for stem cell research. Clearly, this procedure has made it easier for both the patients and the doctors to take part in harvesting bone marrow and will hopefully encourage more people to become life saving donors.